INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

INTERNATIONAL POLITICS - Essay Example Politics on this earth progressively became conquered by one type of division: the sovereign national state (SNS)ii. This study will focus on the questions-What is the Westphalian system and to what extent has it been undermined by globalization? The Westphalian system is the worldwide system emblematically instated at the Peace of Westphalia, 1648, which completed the Thirty Years War. At Westphalia the state was set up as an independent political division, meaning that it accredited no rival authorities. Popes and monarchs could no longer interfere straightforwardly in the relationships of the state, but neither could it include sovereign feudal jurisdictions or self-governing peasant societies. The plan of a universal society was devastated; or rather it was re-explained as a worldwide system. Several states were autonomous, but they co-existed in a surrounded space where they continued regular communications with each other. De jure, all states were identical, and although de facto a number of states visibly were more influential than others, the dissimilarities between them were not adequately large for a clear-cut structure to appear. Allegorically speaking, the Westphalian system was a game of billiards with states cr ashing and jumping into, and off, each other. Autonomy awarded each state the right to take care of its personal affairs: an opportunity first enjoyed by emperors and later, after the national revolts which was pursued by the French Revolution, by individuals. The Westphalian system produces guaranteed â€Å"national self-determination† and â€Å"non-interference† in the matters of other territories. To the states supporters this was a great move forward. Kingdoms, indeed any highly planned communication with other territories, associated with the past: to a Roman period, kept in mind for its â€Å"despotism† instead of for its centuries-long harmony, to the gloomy Middle Ages, or probably to a

Competencies Variations Between Associate Degree and Baccalaureate Degree Nurses Essay Example for Free

Competencies Variations Between Associate Degree and Baccalaureate Degree Nurses Essay Competencies Variation between Associate Degree and Baccalaureate Degree The difference in competencies between the associate degree and Baccalaureate degree nurse has been a topic for discussion for many years. Prior to the modern practice of nursing the sick was taken care of by non skilled persons such as sinners, saints or mothers (Fact Sheet). Modern nursing began with Florence Nightingale, but has evolved over the years to become a rich history that includes advances in education of nurses, thus forming three entry level of nursing, Diploma, Associate and Baccalaureate of nursing. This discussion will address the difference in competencies between the associate degree and Baccalaureate degree nurses. The ADN program was started to facilitate the need of nurses in the post war years. This is a two years program that teaches the nurse to provide comfort the physiologic stability and peaceful death. (Yoder 2010). This program was also seen as an ideal course for those who prefer a faster and inexpensive route of becoming a registered nurse. Even though the bedside practice of the ADN and BSN nurses are similar, the ADN nurse focuses on the practical assistance more than the theory. The difference in competencies can be seen in the extra two years required for the BSN program. These graduates are exposed to more prerequisites theory, leadership management, research and community based health courses. (Spensor 2008). They are more prepared for the ever changing heath care field because their main focus, are evidence –based practice. They are taught to think independently, use judgment, critical thinking, reasoning and decision making skills, to understand the situation at hand before providing care, and by utilizing these skill they are better able to work within interdisciplinary team and have better patient care outcome. An example of this was observed in a patient care situation on a med surgical unit, where the ADN nurse was taking care of a patient with history of uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension who was about to be discharged. His blood glucose was regularly monitored, medication was dispensed appropriately and she made sure that he was receiving the appropriate diet tray from the kitchen. However when his call light was answered by the BSN nurse she noticed that he had a packet of potato chips and some cookies on his bedside table that was open. She addressed his need, then told him that she noticed the cookies and potato chips at his bedside, which he admitted to be snacking on, and added that the cookies were sugar free and chips were not very salty and that was all he could really afford. The BSN nurse was able to address the situation at hand and was able to teach the pt that even though a packet may read sugar free did not mean it was ok to have. Since it can be loaded with carbohydrates, which break down into sugar. She then collaborated with interdisciplinary team of dietician and social services to prepare this patient for discharge, where this patient and his family were taught how to comply with his diet, by learning how read labels, choose foods, and the important of doing so. Social services ensure that he was provided with the information of community based resources in his neighborhood that will attend to his financial as well as his social needs. Even though the ADN nurse’s bedside nursing was appropriate, it was clear that the two extra years of understanding the concept behind the skills separated a nurse that use critical thinking from one that performed task. In response to the ever changing healthcare system a higher degree of nurses are sought. Therefore the nursing programs help to equip graduates to provide excellent and holistic care while encouraging them to achieve lifelong quest for knowledge and the pursuit of advance professional degree.

The Values And Ethics Of The Profession Social Work Essay

The Values And Ethics Of The Profession Social Work Essay Social workers are put into difficult situations on a regular basis. The Health and care professions council (HCPC) set guidelines to aid the challenges social workers face. To remain registered, a social worker needs to abide by the HCPC code of ethics to ensure delivery of the best possible service for users. Working within the guidelines set can be challenging as it may cause conflict with the service users values or potentially the social workers own values. For the purpose of this essay, ethics will be defined as professional obligations and rules of conduct (Meacham, 2007). Social work values will be defined as a range of beliefs about what is regarded as worthy or valuable in a social work context (BASW, 2012 p17). This essay focuses on two areas of the personalisation agenda that can cause challenges for social workers; accommodation and personal budgets. The target service user group for the purposes of this essay is people with disabilities. Using the definition stated in t he Equality Act, (2010) A person is considered disabled if they have a physical or mental impairment that has a substantial and long-term negative effect on their ability to do normal daily activities. Legislation and requirements to support adults with disabilities is increasing for the over eleven million people with a limiting long term illness, impairment or disability in Great Britain (office for disability issues, 2012). However, disabled people report mixed feelings and reactions to the legislations and rules put in place regarding their care and allowances (Dalley, 1991). The social philosophical approaches to social work will be used to deal with the challenges and conflicts social workers face. This essay touches upon Kants deontology; Benthams and Mills utilitarianism and Biesteks 7 principles approach. Immanuel Kant (1785) developed the theory of deontology. This means that social workers need to be promoting good actions and the correct motive, however the consequence is not important and the idea of an acceptable motive is subject to judgement (Adapted by Hartsell, 2006; Banks, 2001; Reiman, 2009; Meacham, 2008). Subsequently, Kant introduced the idea of a categorical imperative (CI). A CI maintains a persons motives for their actions and they therefore should be acceptable as a universal law. Â  Thus people should act on motives that can be used by everyone in a moral society and lead to respect for people (Darwell, 2002 cited in Reiman, 2009). From this it is seen that people should be treated as an end, for example a choice or desire, rather than a means (object) to our own ends. He believed that everyone should be treated with respect regardless of their characteristics or behaviour (Banks, 2001). Kant talks about respect for the individual person and promoting self determination. Biestek (1961) produced 7 principles that over time have become highly influential to social workers looking at values and ethics within their practice. 5 main principles have been used: Individualisation; Recognition that each service user has unique qualities, good and bad. Purposeful expression of feeling; Recognition that service users need to express their feelings (especially negative ones) freely. Acceptance; The social worker should be able to work with a service user without passing judgement and accepting Individuals for who they are, including their strengths and their weaknesses. Non judgemental attitude; Social workers should be able to not pass judgement or assign guilt to the service user. It is about judging the service users behaviour User self determination; the social worker should be able to guide the service user, depending on their on their capacity, to have freedom in making their own decisions and choices (Adapted by Banks, 2001). Utilitarianism focuses on a consequentialist approach as it focuses on the consequences of the action, rather than the actions themselves. (Scheffler, 1994 cited in Reiman, 2009). Decisions should be made on the results and consequences it could have on society rather than on a personal and individual basis, and to promote maximum good within society. The right action produces the greatest balance of good over evil the principle of utility. (Banks, 2001). Utilitarianism is based on a theory developed by Bentham and Mills who looked into two branches of utilitarianism; hedonistic and ideal utilitarianism. Bentham explored hedonistic utilitarianism, where good was matched with happiness. Mills explored the idea of ideal utilitarianism. This focused on good being about virtues, truth and knowledge, not just happiness. (Banks, 2001). The theory promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people. When making a decision it is imperative that the consequence is considered. Theref ore as a social worker, it would be beneficial to look at the consequences of the forthcoming action and evaluate what would be most beneficial and least harmful to the service user. In the late 1980s, the Government recognised that an improvement in access to community services was required. The Government were committed to providing more support for people with long term needs by assisting and supporting individuals to manage their conditions and providing services they require in the community rather than in long-stay hospitals.(Oliver, 1996) Morris (1993) conducted a study that looked into disabled individuals who needed day to day services. He found that disabled individuals were starting to feel a sense of hopelessness and helplessness when trying to access statutory services. Historically, social workers assessed and told service users what services they needed. Through the personalisation agenda, and the introduction of direct payments, service users told the social worker their needs. For the first time, the social worker had to accept the service users self-assessment and then use the assessment to see if the highlighted issues were eligible under Fair Access to Care (2003) legislation. Direct payments were introduced in 1997 and social workers had to translate service user needs into a monetary value to enable them to purchase their own service. The aim was to give individuals control over their care and their lives. Direct payments evolved into personalised budgets and have further evolved into a more individualised budget / service plan. The need for change and equality of service provision has been recognised as more views are being voiced by people with disabilities. In line with Beisteks theory, service users are using purposeful expression of feeling and self-determination to enable the social workers to know their wants and needs. This has resulted in changes which could reduce the potential for conflict in the future. A further challenge is budgetary control. Service users often want services that are financially unavailable to them. Although ethics state that service users should be encouraged to have self- determination, be treated as a whole and the social worker should promote and provide information regarding their care (BASW, 2012), the service users choice cannot always be guaranteed. Utilitarianism would suggest that this is because if service users always received the services they wanted, the social worker would not be promoting the greatest good for the greatest number, instead would be taking a more Kantian approach of promoting moral good. These two philosophical approaches cause conflict within themselves. The Mental Capacity Act (2005) says a person lacks capacity in relation to a matter if at the material time he is unable to make a decision for himself in relation to the matter because of an impairment of, or a disturbance in the functioning of, the mind or brain. (s2). This leads to challenges and conflicts for social workers. If the service user had capacity, there could be conflict over the way they spend their budget which could lead to the social worker treating that individual without respect. Following the BASW code of ethics (2012), it states that social workers should respect the right to self-determination. Kant would support this view as, by the social worker supporting the individual to meet their own self-defined needs, the social worker is promoting good actions that will in turn produce good outcomes for the individual. The social worker needs to recognise that the individual has human rights and freedom to voice their views. Burton (1996) showed that there was a fail ure to recognise the unequal power relations between the social worker in control of provision of services and the service user who relies on the services. This therefore would undermine Beisteks principles of self-determination as, although the service user is voicing their opinion, the social worker is not listening and this could be seen as jeopardising the principles of personalisation and the code of ethics that are imperative. The implementation of The Mental Capacity Act needs to be reviewed to ensure workers are following legislation and ethics. It should not be assumed someone lacks capacity because they have a disability. On the other hand, if the service user didnt have capacity, it could cause conflict between the social worker and the paid carer and/or unpaid carers. If the service user lacks capacity, how would the social worker or the carers be able to assess what was best for the individual? A social worker would have to uphold and promote human dignity and well-being as well as empowering the individual. (BASW, 2012). These ethics and values are supported by Beisteks theory. Workers need to treat the service user with respect, be non -judgemental and accept the situation the service user may be in. The social worker therefore would only be able to act upon their assessment which should include the carers views on what is best for the service user. Utilitarianism, an alternative argument, would argue whats the greatest good for the greatest number? What would benefit the service user more? The social workers views or the carers views? The outcomes need to ensure that the maximum people are happy . The social worker could reach the maximum happiness and reduce conflict by using empowerment. The social worker would respect the needs and preferences of the service user, via the carers and family members as well as recognising their own prejudices to ensure the correct services are offered. The Community Care Act (1990) promotes care in the community and people staying within their own home, allowing the individual to use their personal budget and have carers to promote independence. There is evidence to suggest for example, individuals who have fractured a limb, fare better when they recuperate in their own homes. (Pignolo, Keenan and Hebela, 2011). Accommodation is a major concern for many service users (Davis and Wainwright, 1996). One aspect that could cause conflict is the practice of placing young people in young disability units, properties that are specifically designed for people with learning disabilities. Although this could be seen as a solution for people to interact and have support, there is a potential conflict as the individual cannot choose where they want to live and may live a distance from family/friends. If placed in a purpose built establishment, the individuals are classed as being housed by the local authority and therefore do not get to choose alternative locations (Oliver, 1996). The dilemma for the social worker is the need to take the individuals views into account whilst balancing their needs and wants, particularly if the service user lacks the capacity to make the decision. It is unlawful for anyone to sign a tenancy agreement on behalf of an individual who lacks capacity. A capacity assessment needs to be undertaken to ensure the service user understands how to maintain that tenancy. In order to proceed, an application needs to be made to The Court of Protection. This could lead to conflict as the social worker and housing department need to uphold the law, however many families feel they have the right to sign a tenancy for their disabled family member and find it difficult to accept that this is not the case. According to BASW (2012), the social worker needs to develop professional relationships with the service user and the family, uphold the reputation and values of the profession as well as recognising diversity and treating the individual as a whole. Utilitarianism would recommend looking at what benefits the whole family, rather than just the service user. Challenges arise when the service user lacks capacity. Using the utilitarian approach, it could be said that the service user shouldnt be given a tenancy as it doesnt promote the greatest good for the greatest number. This view is in conflict with BASW codes of ethics. It could be seen as unethical practice and lead to further conflict. Beistek would support the view of BASW in using the specific value base that service users should be allowed to freely express their feelings, both positive and negative, and the social worker should listen and make a decision in an accepting and non-judgemental way. However, Kant would say that although the consequence of not getting a choice in where the service user lives is a negative outcome, the intention of placing them in a home, with other people to socialise is a good moral judgement that is solely benefitting the individual. Another potential conflict could be older disabled individuals being forced into care. The Sutherland Report (1999) claimed that older disabled people were being forced into institutional care too early due to the lack of alternative care at home. Sixsmith and Sixsmith (2008) provided evidence that by 2008 there had been a shift in care provision and that the Personalisation Agenda meant that people were remaining in their home for longer and receiving appropriate services. However there is a further potential for conflict when accommodating people, with disabilities, to stay in their homes. Individuals may want to grow old at home but is this possible for people with significantly reduced mobility? Many homes are inaccessible to wheelchair users and those with significant mobility impairments (Burns, 2004). There is a Government scheme whereby disabled people can apply for a disabled facility grant to have their homes adapted, and certain individuals have to re-pay the Government, t herefore the Government is not financing expensive care packages. The role of the social worker would be to negotiate, support and empower the service user to have their needs met in the most appropriate, desired way. According to Kants theory, having a loan is the moral good as people will be able to remain at home for longer, promoting happiness and community care. This would be supported by the values of BASW which states social workers need to treat the service user as a whole and respect their right to self-determination. In contrast to Kants theory, Utilitarianism would consider weighing up the consequences of removing the service user from their house and into an adapted and safe environment. I.e. a care home could be seen as an easier option for disabled people to receive care. This view could cause conflict because the social worker is going against the wishes and desires of the service user. Utilitarianism looks at the best outcome for society rather than on an individual level. Therefore, by moving individuals out of the house into the care home may provide maximum happiness for society, although it disregards the individuals views and opinions. This is a criticism of the model as many service users could potentially not have their needs met in a manner that is acceptable to them due to the focus being on the benefit to society. This could be particularly true e.g. for people with English as a second language or who follow a religious faith. However, Beistek would agree with Kant in promoting self-determination. A key theme running throughout this essay is respect for the individual person as a self determining being. Both Kant and Beistek promote this and therefore appear to be the social philosophical models best tailored towards social work values and ethics. There are clear conflicts between traditional social work and the personalisation agenda for people with disabilities. These conflicts have been reduced with the introduction of HCPC ethics. If the social worker consistently uses these theories whilst working with conflict and challenging service users then the BASW ethics will be maintained and the service users will receive the best appropriate service available within Fair access to care criteria.

Global Warming Essays -- Environment Global Warming Climate Change

Global Warming Climate change is neither new nor unusual. Throughout the history of the earth, the average surface temperature, climate and greenhouse gas concentrations have changed, sometimes gradually other times quite sharply. During the past 10,000 years the earth has been in an interglacial period with a fairly stable climate, surface temperature, and greenhouse gas concentration1. The problem that has arisen in recent times is when scientists analyze the past 150 years, especially the last 50. Scientists have found an increased greenhouse gas concentration, making the 20th century the hottest in the last 10,000 years. Although the earth has undergone periodic changes known as global cooling and global warming, today’s global warming is unique, due to human influences. The greenhouse effect is essentially gasses in the atmosphere trapping heat, rather like a car window does in the summer. The major heat trapping gasses found in the atmosphere are; CO2 and water vapor- which are found in large quantity, 03(ozone), ch4(methane), and N2O(nitrous oxide)-which are better heat trappers but found in smaller quantity, CFC’s and PFC’s- which are very potent and destroy ozone. The rapid elevation of these gasses in the past fifty years have been the cause for concern of scientists calling it a global warming problem. Global warming is a natural process as well as a human assisted process. Solar flares and sunspots along with natural elevation of greenhouse gasses due to volcanic activety are the natural causes for global warming. Dr. Judy Lean, a leading astrophysicist, looked at global warming trends from 1860 to the present day. Her research has found from 1860 to 1970, global warming was largely due to natural sources. But from 1970 to the present natural sources accounted for only one-third the increase while human influence accounted for the remaining two-thirds of the increased greenhouse effect. The increase in greenhouse gasses from human sources comes from a variety of things. Elevated Co2 levels, which have been increasing at a rate of 0.5% per year, largely come from the burning of fossil fuels(70-75%), especially coal. Deforestation and plant burning account for the remainder. Increased Methane and Nitrous oxide in the atmosphere are mostly due to agriculture; rice patties, cattle, termites and decomposition of dead... ...ns in order to stop the increase. In order to slow the increase, the efficient use of fossil fuels must be adapted. Natural gas gives off very little co2 and methane if burned properly. Deforestation must also be stopped in order to give natural co2 scrubbers, plants, a chance to aid in the process. Governmental programs have also been implemented. A carbon tax has been considered along with the passing of the 1990 Clean Air Act, aimed at lowering emissions and cleaning air pollution. On a world wide scale, the Kyoto Accord in 1997, in which 159 nations agreed to work together to decrease Co2 emissions by 5.5% by 2012. The United States agreed, since it accounts for 25% of the worlds total emissions by 1990 figures, to cut its emissions by 7%. Global warming is still a major issue in world and U.S. politics. Conservatives argue for more market-orientated solutions, resulting in the imposition of taxes, resulting in higher prices for environment polluting goods. Liberals on the other hand advocate stiffer industry regulation and more direct controls. Any action taken, whatever the ideology, can only help to solve an increasing problem but at what cost to the consumer?

Modern Technology Essay

When we look back to the history of human being in recent 200 years, we will be surprising what a huge change modern technology has brought us. Trains and planes enable us to travel to everywhere we want. Internet and televisions communicate news to everyone. New technologies provide us a new standard of living, and I state that they are creating a single world culture. Modern technology has shortened the distance between cultures, and made the world smaller. People can travel or migrate from one place to another very quickly. They see how people in other zones dress, speak and behave. The more exposure to other traditions and customs they do, the more likely they adopt to those. As a result, their own traditions and customs are replaced by a massive one. Another reason for the impact of modern technology on creating a similar world is that it makes possible for cultures to communicate with each other. When watching TV programmes, searching web and chatting through the Internet, people learn about foreign cultures and try to make some of those their own. The exchange of knowledge has had a great impact on their lives. The cafà © from Brazil, the scotch from Scotland, the cigars from Cuba, the wine from France, the American music, that appear and become well-known in many parts of the world are good examples of how modern technology influences people’s life and also creates a single world culture. With the rapid development of modern technology, people learn and come to appreciate foreign cultures. They recognize the value of variety. Therefore, in the near future, there will be many similarities in country’s cultures. Traditional cultures around the world may be more willing to join our call for a single world one.

In my mind justice is a very abstract concept

In my mind justice is a very abstract concept. Although it seems like everyone knows the meaning of the word many people view justice differently. If you would ask people what they associate the word justice with, you would hear many opinions. To me it means fairness, accountability, equality, punishment, following the letter of the law, and these are the words that came to my mind on the spot, but the list sure doesnt end here. What may seem just to one person may be considered totally unjust to someone else; we are faced with this reality very often. It could be a minor issue, which affects only few individuals, such as debating if a grade your professor gave you on an exam is a fair evaluation of your knowledge of the material. On a greater level, it could be an issue such as capital punishment. Those who support death sentence say that some criminals should be punished by death for crimes that they commit. Those with the opposing view, ask if its just to have the! power to take a persons life, no matter what crime they are guilty of committing. As Walzer states: Justice is a human construction, and it is doubtful that it can be made in only one way... In his discussion on distributive justice Walzer talks about distribution of goods in a society and power struggles that are constant in societies with where goods can be limited. According to him monopoly arises from lack of a valuable good in a society, the limited amount of that good automatically gives power to those individuals who poses it, creating inequality. He goes on explaining the theory of simple equality where government constantly limits the power of those with possession of the rare goods, but soon the government itself becomes the greater power which controls all other goods. He states that: Politics is always the most direct path to dominance, and political power...is probably the most important and certainly m